Aloe vera

Aloe vera
Aloe vera plant with flower detail inset.
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Asparagales
Family: Asphodelaceae
Genus: Aloe
Species: Aloe vera
Binomial name
Aloe vera
(L.) Burm.f.

Aloe vera, also known as the true or medicinal aloe, is a species of succulent plant that probably originated in the southern half of the Arabian peninsula, Northern Africa, the Canary islands and Cape Verde. Aloe vera grows in arid climates and is widely distributed in Africa, India and other arid areas. The species is frequently cited as being used in herbal medicine. Many scientific studies of the use of aloe vera have been undertaken, some of them conflicting.[1][2][3][4] Despite these limitations, there is some preliminary evidence that Aloe vera extracts may be useful in the treatment of wound and burn healing, minor skin infections, Sebaceous cyst, diabetes and elevated blood lipids in humans.[3] These positive effects are thought to be due to the presence of compounds such as polysaccharides, mannans, anthraquinones and lectins.[3][5][6]

Contents

Description

Aloe vera is a stemless or very short-stemmed succulent plant growing to 60–100 cm (24–39 in) tall, spreading by offsets. The leaves are thick and fleshy, green to grey-green, with some varieties showing white flecks on the upper and lower stem surfaces.[7] The margin of the leaf is serrated and has small white teeth. The flowers are produced in summer on a spike up to 90 cm (35 in) tall, each flower pendulous, with a yellow tubular corolla 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) long.[7][8] Like other Aloe species, Aloe vera forms arbuscular mycorrhiza, a symbiosis that allows the plant better access to mineral nutrients in soil.[9]

Taxonomy and etymology

Spotted forms of Aloe vera are sometimes known as Aloe vera var. chinensis.

The species has a number of synonyms: A. barbadensis Mill., Aloe indica Royle, Aloe perfoliata L. var. vera and A. vulgaris Lam.,[10][11] and common names including Chinese Aloe, Indian Aloe, true Aloe, Barbados Aloe, burn Aloe, first aid plant.[8][12][13][14][15] The species name vera means "true" or "genuine."[12] Some literature identifies the white spotted form of Aloe vera as Aloe vera var. chinensis,[16][17] however, the species varies widely with regard to leaf spots [18] and it has been suggested that the spotted form of Aloe vera may be conspecific with A. massawana.[19] The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 as Aloe perfoliata var. vera,[20] and was described again in 1768 by Nicolaas Laurens Burman as Aloe vera in Flora Indica on the 6th of April and by Philip Miller as Aloe barbadensis some ten days after Burman in the Gardener's Dictionary.[21]

Techniques based on DNA comparison suggest that Aloe vera is relatively closely related to Aloe perryi, a species that is endemic to Yemen.[22] Similar techniques, using chloroplast DNA sequence comparison and ISSR profiling have also suggested that Aloe vera is closely related to Aloe forbesii, Aloe inermis, Aloe scobinifolia, Aloe sinkatana and Aloe striata.[23] With the exception of South African species, A. striata, these Aloe species are native to Socotra (Yemen), Somalia and Sudan.[23] The lack of obvious natural populations of the species have led some authors to suggest that Aloe vera may be of hybrid origin.[24]

Distribution

The natural range of Aloe vera is unclear, as the species has been widely cultivated throughout the world. Naturalised stands of the species occur in the southern half of the Arabian peninsula, through North Africa, from Morocco to Egypt and Sudan, along with the Canary, Cape Verde and Madeira Islands.[10] This distribution is similar to the one of Euphorbia balsamifera, Pistacia atlantica and a few others, suggesting that a dry sclerophyl forest once covered large areas, but has been dramatically reduced due to desertification in the Sahara, leaving these few patches isolated. The species was introduced to China and various parts of southern Europe in the 17th century.[25] The species is widely naturalised elsewhere, occurring in temperate and tropical regions of Australia, Barbados, Belize, Nigeria, Paraguay and the US[18][26] It has been suggested that the actual species' distribution is the result of human cultivation and that the taxonomy could be doubtful too.[19]

Alternative names

- In India, the plant is known as Korphad inMaharashtra, Ghrtakumari(Hindi/Sanskrit: घृतकुमारी) or Gheekvar (घीक्वार)
and is sometimes used in Ayurvedic healing. In states of Rajasthan and Gujarat it is known as GwarPatha, In Tamilnadu it is known as Katralai (Tamil: கற்றாழை).

- In Pakistan, the plant is known as Quargandal and is used in Unani (Greek-Islamic) medicine.

- In South America it is known as Sabila.

- In Indonesia, it is known as Lidah Buaya.

- In Thailand, it is known as the "Crocodile Tail" (Thai: ว่านหางจระเข้) plant.

- In many parts of India the plant extract is used as a home remedy for numerous skin allergies, acne, fungus infections and beauty-aid. In the state of Kerala, where it is known as kattar vazha, Aloe Vera is a common household name and for a long time it is being used for Ayurvedic treatment. And in the state of Tamil nadu, Aloe vera is known as katraazhai (Tamil: கற்றாழை) and it has also a pet name kumari. The pulp of the plant is highly regarded for its anti-ageing potential, hence the name kumari. The pulp is used extensively in Siddha medicines for treating constipation, enlargement of spleen, zymotic disease, chengamaari (a type of venereal infection) etc.[27]

-In Mexico and Latin America it is often referred to as either "Savia", "Savila", or "Sabila." It is widely used both by Indigenous Peoples as well as by some Mestizos as a traditional medicine.

Cultivation

Aloe vera can be grown as an ornamental plant.

Aloe vera has been widely grown as an ornamental plant. The species is popular with modern gardeners as a putatively medicinal plant and due to its interesting flowers, form and succulence. This succulence enables the species to survive in areas of low natural rainfall, making it ideal for rockeries and other low-water use gardens.[7] The species is hardy in zones 8–11, although it is intolerant of very heavy frost or snow.[8][28] The species is relatively resistant to most insect pests, though spider mites, mealy bugs, scale insects and aphid species may cause a decline in plant health.[29][30] In pots, the species requires well-drained sandy potting soil and bright sunny conditions; however, in very hot and humid tropical or subtropical climates, aloe plants should be protected from direct sun and rain, as they will burn and/or turn mushy easily under these conditions. The use of a good quality commercial propagation mix or pre-packaged "cacti and succulent mix" is recommended as they allow good drainage.[31] Terracotta pots are preferable as they are porous.[31] Potted plants should be allowed to completely dry prior to re-watering. When potted aloes become crowded with "pups" growing from the sides of the "mother plant," they should be divided and re-potted to allow room for further growth and help prevent pest infestations. During winter, A. vera may become dormant, during which little moisture is required. In areas that receive frost or snow the species is best kept indoors or in heated glasshouses.[8] Large scale agricultural production of Aloe vera is undertaken in Australia,[32] Bangladesh, Cuba,[33] the Dominican Republic, China, Mexico,[34] India,[35] Jamaica,[36] Kenya and South Africa,[37] along with the USA[38] to supply the cosmetics industry with Aloe vera gel.

Uses

Medicinal uses

Scientific evidence for the cosmetic and therapeutic effectiveness of Aloe vera is limited and when present is frequently contradictory. [1][2] Despite this, the cosmetic and alternative medicine industries regularly make claims regarding the soothing, moisturising and healing properties of Aloe vera, especially via Internet advertising.[3][39][40][41][42] Aloe vera gel is used as an ingredient in commercially available lotion, yogurt, beverages and some desserts.[43][44][45] Aloe vera juice is used for consumption and relief of digestive issues such as heartburn and irritable bowel syndrome. It is common practice for cosmetic companies to add sap or other derivatives from Aloe vera to products such as makeup, tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, incense, razors and shampoos.[43] Other uses for extracts of Aloe vera include the dilution of semen for the artificial fertilization of sheep,[46] use as fresh food preservative,[47] and use in water conservation in small farms.[48]

Aloe vera has a long association with herbal medicine, although it is not known when its medical applications were first discovered. Early records of Aloe vera use appear in the Ebers Papyrus from 16th century BCE,[15] in both Dioscorides' De Materia Medica and Pliny the Elder's Natural History written in the mid-first century CE[15] along with the Juliana Anicia Codex produced in 512 CE.[43] Aloe vera is non-toxic, with no known side effects, provided the aloin has been removed by processing. Taking Aloe vera that contains aloin in excess amounts has been associated with various side effects.[3][4][49] However, the species is used widely in the traditional herbal medicine of China, Japan, Russia, South Africa, the United States, Jamaica and India.[3]

Aloe vera is alleged to be effective in treatment of wounds.[4] Evidence on the effects of Aloe vera sap on wound healing, however, is limited and contradictory.[4] Some studies, for example, show that Aloe vera promotes the rates of healing,[50][51] while in contrast, other studies show that wounds to which Aloe vera gel was applied were significantly slower to heal than those treated with conventional medical preparations.[52][53] A more recent review (2007) concludes that the cumulative evidence supports the use of Aloe vera for the healing of first to second degree burns.[54] In addition to topical use in wound or burn healing, internal intake of Aloe vera has been linked with improved blood glucose levels in diabetics,[55][56] and with lower blood lipids in hyperlipidaemic patients,[57] but also with acute hepatitis (liver disease).[49] In other diseases, preliminary studies have suggested oral Aloe vera gel may reduce symptoms and inflammation in patients with ulcerative colitis.[58] Compounds extracted from Aloe vera have been used as an immunostimulant that aids in fighting cancers in cats and dogs;[5] however, this treatment has not been scientifically tested in humans. The injection of Aloe vera extracts to treat cancer has resulted in the deaths of several patients.[59]

Topical application of Aloe vera may be effective for genital herpes and psoriasis.[60] However, it is not effective for the prevention of radiation-induced injuries. Although anecdotally useful, it has not been proven to offer protection from sunburn or suntan.[61] In a double-blind clinical trial the group using an Aloe vera containing dentifrice and the group using a fluoridated dentifrice both demonstrated a statistically significant reduction of gingivitis and plaque.[62]

Aloe vera extracts have antibacterial and antifungal activities, which may help in the treatment of minor skin infections, such as boils and benign skin cysts. Aloe vera extracts have been shown to inhibit the growth of fungi that cause tinea;[63] however, evidence for control beneath human skin remains to be established. For its anti-fungal properties, Aloe vera is used as a fish tank water conditioner. For bacteria, inner-leaf gel from Aloe vera was shown to inhibit growth of Streptococcus and Shigella species in vitro.[64] In contrast, Aloe vera extracts failed to show antibiotic properties against Xanthomonas species.[65]

Commodity uses

Aloe vera is now widely used on face tissues, where it is promoted as a moisturiser and/or anti-irritant to reduce chafing of the nose of users who suffer hay-fever or cold.[66] It has also been suggested that biofuels could be obtained from Aloe vera seeds.[67] It can also be used to retwist dreadlocked hair, a favourite agent for vegans and those who prefer natural products. Aloe Vera is also used for soothing the skin, and keeping the skin moist while eliminating the risk of flaky scalp and skin in harsh and dry weather.

Historical uses

Aloin was the common ingredient in OTC laxative products in the United States prior to 2003, when the FDA ruled that aloin was a class III ingredient, therefore banning its use.[68] It should be noted that processed aloe that contains aloin is used primarily as a laxative, whereas processed aloe vera juice that does not contain significant amounts of aloin is used as a digestive healer. Manufacturers commonly remove aloin in processing due to the FDA ruling.

Culinary uses

Aloe is also used as a foodstuff. Some molecular gastronomists have begun to take advantage of its gelling properties. Perhaps most notably among these is Chef Quique Dacosta's "Oysters Guggenheim," created at El Poblet in Spain.[69]

Biologically active compounds

Aloe vera leaves contain a range of biologically active compounds, the best studied being acetylated mannans, polymannans, anthraquinone C-glycosides, anthrones and anthraquinones and various lectins.[3][5][6]

Gallery

Products

Aloe vera gel being used to make a dessert.

Incense made with Aloe vera.

Aloe vera in lip balm.

Aloe vera and guava drink

Cultivated Aloe vera

Some varieties of Aloe vera have no spots.

Aloe vera growing on a roadside in Aruba

Aloe vera fields

Another Aloe vera plant

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Ernst E (November 2000). "Adverse effects of herbal drugs in dermatology". The British journal of dermatology 143 (5): 923–9. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2000.03822.x. PMID 11069498. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Marshall JM (2000) Aloe vera gel: what is the evidence? Pharm J 244:360–362.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Boudreau MD, Beland FA (April 2006). "An evaluation of the biological and toxicological properties of Aloe barbadensis (miller), Aloe vera". Journal of environmental science and health. Part C, Environmental carcinogenesis & ecotoxicology reviews 24 (1): 103–54. doi:10.1080/10590500600614303. PMID 16690538. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Vogler BK, Ernst E (October 1999). "Aloe vera: a systematic review of its clinical effectiveness". The British journal of general practice : the journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners 49 (447): 823–8. PMID 10885091. PMC 1313538. http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=0960-1643&volume=49&issue=447&spage=823&aulast=Vogler. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 King GK, Yates KM, Greenlee PG, et al. (1995). "The effect of Acemannan Immunostimulant in combination with surgery and radiation therapy on spontaneous canine and feline fibrosarcomas". Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 31 (5): 439–47. PMID 8542364. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Eshun K, He Q (2004). "Aloe vera: a valuable ingredient for the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries--a review". Critical reviews in food science and nutrition 44 (2): 91–6. doi:10.1080/10408690490424694. PMID 15116756. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Yates A. (2002) Yates Garden Guide. Harper Collins Australia
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Random House Australia Botanica's Pocket Gardening Encyclopedia for Australian Gardeners Random House Publishers, Australia
  9. ↑ Gong M, Wang F, Chen Y (January 2002). "[Study on application of arbuscular-mycorrhizas in growing seedings of Aloe vera]" (in Chinese). Zhong yao cai = Zhongyaocai = Journal of Chinese medicinal materials 25 (1): 1–3. PMID 12583231. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Aloe vera, African flowering plants database". Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève. http://www.ville-ge.ch/cjb/bd/africa/details.php?langue=an&id=155971. Retrieved 2008-06-20. 
  11. ↑ "Taxon: Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.". Germplasm Resources Information Network, United States Department of Agriculture.. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Aloe%20vera. Retrieved 2008-07-16. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Ombrello, T. "Aloe vera". http://faculty.ucc.edu/biology-ombrello/POW/Aloe_vera.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-21. 
  13. ↑ Liao Z, Chen M, Tan F, Sun1 X and Tang K (2004) Microprogagation of endangered Chinese aloe Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 76(1):83–86.
  14. ↑ T. T. Jamir, H. K. Sharma and A. K. Dolui (1999) Folklore medicinal plants of Nagaland, India. Fitoterapia 70(1):395–401.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Barcroft and Myskja (2003) Aloe Vera: Nature's Silent Healer. BAAM, USA. ISBN 095450710X
  16. ↑ Wang H, Li F, Wang T, et al. (September 2004). "[Determination of aloin content in callus of Aloe vera var. chinensis]" (in Chinese). Zhong yao cai = Zhongyaocai = Journal of Chinese medicinal materials 27 (9): 627–8. PMID 15704580. 
  17. ↑ Gao W, Xiao P (November 1997). "[Peroxidase and soluble protein in the leaves of Aloe vera L. var. chinensis (Haw.)Berger]" (in Chinese). Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica 22 (11): 653–4, 702. PMID 11243179. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Akinyele BO, Odiyi AC (2007) Comparative study of the vegetative morphology and the existing taxonomic status of Aloe vera L. Journal of Plant Sciences 2(5):558–563.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Lyons G. "The Definitive Aloe vera, vera?". Huntington Botanic Gardens. http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Desert/Cholla/feb06/feb06.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-11. 
  20. ↑ Linnaeus, C. (1753). Species plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas. Vol. 2 pp. [i], 561–1200, [1–30, index], [i, err.]. Holmiae [Stockholm]: Impensis Laurentii Salvii.
  21. ↑ Newton, L. E. (1979). In defense of the name Aloe vera. The Cactus and Succulent Journal of Great Britain 41: 29–30.
  22. ↑ Darokar MP, Rai R, Gupta AK, Shasany AK, Rajkumar S, Sunderasan V and Khanuja SPS (2003). Molecular assessment of germplasm diversity in Aloe spp. using RAPD and AFLP analysis. J Med. Arom. Plant Sci.25(2): 354–361.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Treutlein, J., Smith, G. F. S., van Wyk, B. E. & Wink, W. (2003). Phylogenetic relationships in Asphodelaceae (Alooideae) inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences (rbcl, matK) and from genomic finger-printing (ISSR). Taxon 52:193.
  24. ↑ Jones WD, Sacamano C. (2000) Landscape Plants for Dry Regions: More Than 600 Species from Around the World. California Bill's Automotive Publishers. USA.
  25. ↑ Farooqi and Sreeramu (2001) Cultivation of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops (Revised Edition). Orient Longman, India. p. 25.
  26. ↑ "Global Compendium of Weeds Aloe vera (Aloeaceae)". Global Compendium of Weeds. http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/aloe_vera/. Retrieved 2008-06-20. 
  27. ↑ Raamachandran, J. "Aloe Vera" (PDF). Herbs of Siddha medicines. p. 18. http://www.thesiddhamedicine.com/page_18.pdf. 
  28. ↑ "BBC Gardening, Aloe vera". British Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/7686.shtml. Retrieved 2008-07-11. 
  29. ↑ "Pest Alert: Aloe vera aphid Aloephagus myersi Essi.". Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/pi/enpp/ento/a-myersi.html. Retrieved 2008-07-11. 
  30. ↑ "Kemper Center for Home Gardening: Aloe vera". Missouri Botanic Gardens, USA. http://www.mobot.org/gardeninghelp/PlantFinder/plant.asp?code=B628. Retrieved 2008-07-11. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Coleby-Williams, J. "Fact Sheet: Aloes". Gardening Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.abc.net.au/gardening/stories/s2280641.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-08. 
  32. ↑ "Aloe vera producer signs $3m China deal". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/12/06/1524745.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-08. 
  33. ↑ "More Medicinal Plants Grow in Ciego de Ávila". invasor.cu. http://www.invasor.cu/sistema/paginas/default.asp?lang=en&id=23062008_More%20Medicinal%20Plants%20Grow%20in%20Ciego%20de%20Avila. Retrieved 2008-06-25. 
  34. ↑ "Korea interested in Dominican ‘aloe vera’". DominicanToday.com—The Dominican Republic News Source in English. http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/economy/2006/7/7/15337/Korea-interested-in-Dominican-aloe-vera. Retrieved 2008-07-19. 
  35. ↑ Vaibhav Varma. "India experiments with farming medicinal plants". channelnewsasia.com. http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/southasia/view/183050/1/.html. Retrieved 2008-06-25. 
  36. ↑ "Harnessing the potential of our aloe". Jamaica Gleaner, jamaica-gleaner.com. http://www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20080117/eyes/eyes1.html. Retrieved 2008-07-19. 
  37. ↑ "Kenya: Imported Gel Hurts Aloe Vera Market". allafrica.com. http://allafrica.com/stories/200708020872.html. Retrieved 2008-06-25. 
  38. ↑ "US Farms, Inc. - A Different Kind of Natural Resource Company". resourceinvestor.com. http://www.resourceinvestor.com/pebble.asp?relid=38588. Retrieved 2008-07-19. 
  39. ↑ "Miracle of Aloe". http://www.miracleofaloe.com. Retrieved 2008-06-23. 
  40. ↑ "Aloe Vera Australia". http://www.aloevera.com.au/. Retrieved 2008-06-23. 
  41. ↑ "Forever Living Website". http://www.foreverliving.com. Retrieved 2008-06-23. 
  42. ↑ Kunkel. G. Plants for Human Consumption. Koeltz Scientific Books 1984 ISBN 3874292169
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 Reynolds, T. (2004) Aloes: The Genus Aloe. CRC Press
  44. ↑ Liza Armstrong. "Clean and green". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.abc.net.au/landline/stories/s502100.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-20. 
  45. ↑ "Yagua unveils cosmeceutical beverage". Decision News Media. http://www.foodanddrinkeurope.com/news/ng.asp?n=18445-yagua-unveils-cosmeceutical. Retrieved 2008-06-20. 
  46. ↑ Rodriguez F, Baldassarre H, Simonetti J, Aste F, Ruttle JL. (1988) Cervical versus intrauterine insemination of ewes using fresh or frozen semen diluted with aloe vera gel. Theriogenology 30(5):843-54.
  47. ↑ Serrano M, Valverde JM, Guillén F, Castillo S, Martínez-Romero D, Valero D (May 2006). "Use of Aloe vera gel coating preserves the functional properties of table grapes". Journal of agricultural and food chemistry 54 (11): 3882–6. doi:10.1021/jf060168p. PMID 16719510. 
  48. ↑ "Water conservation". The Hindu, India. http://www.hindu.com/seta/2008/07/10/stories/2008071050161800.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-14. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Bottenberg MM, Wall GC, Harvey RL, Habib S (October 2007). "Oral aloe vera-induced hepatitis". The Annals of pharmacotherapy 41 (10): 1740–3. doi:10.1345/aph.1K132. PMID 17726067. 
  50. ↑ Heggers JP, Elzaim H, Garfield R, et al. (1997). "Effect of the combination of Aloe vera, nitroglycerin, and L-NAME on wound healing in the rat excisional model". Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.) 3 (2): 149–53. doi:10.1089/acm.1997.3.149. PMID 9395704. 
  51. ↑ Davis RH, Leitner MG, Russo JM, Byrne ME (November 1989). "Wound healing. Oral and topical activity of Aloe vera". Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association 79 (11): 559–62. PMID 2607423. 
  52. ↑ Schmidt JM, Greenspoon JS (July 1991). "Aloe vera dermal wound gel is associated with a delay in wound healing". Obstetrics and gynecology 78 (1): 115–7. PMID 2047051. 
  53. ↑ Kaufman T, Kalderon N, Ullmann Y, Berger J (1988). "Aloe vera gel hindered wound healing of experimental second-degree burns: a quantitative controlled study". The Journal of burn care & rehabilitation 9 (2): 156–9. doi:10.1097/00004630-198803000-00005. PMID 3360818. 
  54. ↑ Maenthaisong R, Chaiyakunapruk N, Niruntraporn S et al. (2007). "The efficacy of aloe vera for burn wound healing: a systematic review." Burns. 33:713-718.
  55. ↑ Yongchaiyudha S, Rungpitarangsi V, Bunyapraphatsara N, Chokechaijaroenporn O. (1996) Antidiabetic activity of Aloe vera L juice. I. Clinical trial in new cases of diabetes mellitus. Phytomedicine 3: 241–243.
  56. ↑ Bunyapraphatsara N, Yongchaiyudha S, Rungpitarangsi V, Chokechaijaroenporn O. (1996) Antidiabetic activity of Aloe vera L juice. II. Clinical trial in diabetes mellitus patients in combination with glibenclamide. Phytomedicine 3: 245–248.
  57. ↑ Nassiff HA, Fajardo F, Velez F. (1993) Effecto del aloe sobre la hiperlipidemia en pacientes refractarios a la dieta. Rev Cuba Med Gen Integr 9:43–51
  58. ↑ Langmead L, Feakins RM, Goldthorpe S, et al. (April 2004). "Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of oral aloe vera gel for active ulcerative colitis". Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics 19 (7): 739–47. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2004.01902.x. PMID 15043514. 
  59. ↑ Skinner WJ. Aloe vera injections result in medical license suspension. Natural Medicine Law 1997; 1:1.
  60. ↑ Vogler BK, Ernst E. (1999). "Aloe vera: a systematic review of its clinical effectiveness." Br J Gen Prac. 49:823-828.
  61. ↑ Feily A, Namazi MR. (2009). "Aloe vera in dermatology: a brief review." G Ital Dermatol Venereol. 144:84-91.
  62. ↑ de Oliveira SM, Torres TC, Pereira SL et al. (2008). "Effect of a dentifrice containing Aloe vera on plaque and gingivitis control: A double-blind clinical study in humans.
  63. ↑ Sumbul Shamim, S. Waseemuddin Ahmed, Iqbal Azhar (2004) Antifungal activity of Allium, Aloe, and Solanum species. Pharmaceutical Biology 42 (7) 491–498.
  64. ↑ Ferro VA, Bradbury F, Cameron P, Shakir E, Rahman SR, Stimson WH (March 2003). "In vitro susceptibilities of Shigella flexneri and Streptococcus pyogenes to inner gel of Aloe barbadensis Miller". Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy 47 (3): 1137–9. doi:10.1128/AAC.47.3.1137-1139.2003. PMID 12604556. 
  65. ↑ S. Satish, K. A. Raveesha, G. R. Janardhana (1999) Antibacterial activity of plant extracts on phytopathogenic Xanthomonas campestris pathovars Letters in Applied Microbiology 28(2), 145–147 doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00479.x
  66. ↑ google search for aloe-vera facial-tissue, Sep 2009
  67. ↑ Shukla S.. "Aloe Vera has biodiesel potential, reveals MSU study". expressindia.com. http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Aloe-Vera-has-biodiesel-potential-reveals-MSU-study/324861/. Retrieved 2008-06-21. 
  68. ↑ "FDA". http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12001972. 
  69. ↑ Quique Dacosta. "Guggenheim Bilbao". http://www.lomejordelagastronomia.com/en/dishes/guggenheim-bilbao-0. Retrieved August 31, 2010. 

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